Enlightment for Fredrick the Great of Prussia and Joseph...

Frederick the Great of Prussia and Joseph II of Austria adopted the newfound ideas of the Enlightenment to different extents with Frederick the Great advancing the ideas by implementing religious toleration, freedom of speech and press, and setting a single code of laws for all of his subjects and not advancing them by not abolishing serfdom for fear of upsetting the â€Å"Junkers†, or Prussian nobility; Joseph II advanced the ideas of the Enlightenment eagerly by completely abolishing serfdom paying no heed to what it could cause socially and politically and he didn’t advance these ideas in the end because his many reforms caused alienation of the church and nobility and radical changes in social hierarchy. Frederick the Great of Prussia†¦show more content†¦Most of these reforms though were to please the querulous nobility and prevent them from trying to interfere with the government and upset social balance. Frederick the Great set limitations whilst accepting Enlightenment ideas when it interfered with the good of his subjects, economy and his beloved military. All of these three topics depended on the Prussian nobility, or the â€Å"Junkers† who owned large amounts of land had many serfs to farm it. Many of these Junkers also held important military ranks in the army. Frederick the Great could have chosen to abolish serfdom but did not for this would greatly anger the Junkers, the backbone of the Prussian state and military. It was said that Prussia was not a country with an army: it was an army with a country. In Frederick’s military, he did not abolish torture to help install discipline and honesty in his soldiers. Keeping this helped his army become the fou rth strongest army in Europe. Joseph II of Austria strictly believed that reason was the best and only path to take and so accepted nearly all of the new Enlightenment ideas on his traditionally run empire causing major issues. One

Legal, Ethical, And Policy Issues - 1392 Words

Legal, Ethical, and Policy Issues, Oh My! Julia Colasurdo SUNY College of Technology at Alfred State Abstract Legal, ethical, and policy issues are an important aspect of nursing and medical informatics. Nurses should be aware of the dilemmas facing the use of informatics in the health care facilities. It is important to note the legal issues facing nursing because of the charges of negligence that can be incurred on the nurse if not aware. Ethical dilemmas of privacy including security breaches can be detrimental to the facility, and the patients. Nurses should also be aware of the policies regarding privacy, and confidentiality. These actions can help prevent issues and aid in improving the health care system, especially in†¦show more content†¦Health care depends on information.† As nurses we have to be able to interpret the data and evaluate it’s accuracy. We also use it along with our assessments to care for our patients and identify when something isn’t right. This objective will help me to understand the legal, ethical, and policy issues related to the use of informatics in the work place. And it will also allow me to be not only aware of these issues, but will help me to understand and utilize the data in the intended way to help patients. Legal Issues Legal issues related to medical informatics was destined to be a problem. Before health records were only paper based and there was constantly incomplete or illegible information that was difficult to dicipher. Now that electronic health records are commonly used, health care providers have access to unlimited amounts of data that’s perfectly legible. The amount of data now avaialable to the providers could almost be overwhelming. â€Å"This virtual â€Å"mountain† of data can lead to information overload, a new liability that can lead providers to overlook key findings despite reliable access to documentation. For instance, clinicians who miss a critical detail that affects treatment decisions while reviewing the EHR could in fact be liable for negligence because â€Å"the fact in question was likely just a few clicks away.†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Sittig Singh, 2011). The use of electronic health records,

Strengthening Federal Clean Air Standards Free Essays

For Californians, not a day goes by without hearing some remark referring to smog or the quality of the air they breathe. One becomes accustom to shrugging such remarks off without a second thought after a while. Sure the air is getting cleaner, manufactures and people alike seem to be doing all they can do to clean up the air they breathe. We will write a custom essay sample on Strengthening Federal Clean Air Standards or any similar topic only for you Order Now Clean air folks are starting to be labeled as reactionaries. As with every organized group there are those among them that deserve such labels, but when it comes down to the air which people have to breathe very day, extra emphasis is a good thing. Federal and local regulations along with public support are responsible for substantial gains in air quality in the last ten years. â€Å"Air quality in Southern California continues to improve, with 1995 registering some of the lowest levels in decades. Yet Southern California still experiences the worst air quality in the nation requiring continued diligence to meet air quality standards† These improvements provide the grounds for continuing the battle for air quality instead of grounds for a pat on the back and job well done. Federal clean air standards should be strengthened. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) along with an arsenal of reputable agencies have drafted a plan known as the 1997 Air Quality Management Plan (AQMP) in which detailed summaries regarding current and future air quality measures are brought forward for critics and supporters alike to discern. It is in this plan along with supporting facts regarding beneficial economic gains and support from the medical community that make the case for continuous and stricter air quality standards. The 1997 AQMP sets fourth the guidelines in which the Federal government should set standards for state and local governments along with private agencies to impose and enforce. The focus of the plan comes as a result of new understanding regarding pollutants known as ozone and M10. This new information flows from countless scientific studies. For example, â€Å"Use of the most current air quality information (1995), including special particulate matter data from the PM10 Technical Enhancement Program† . There findings show direct links in ozone and the PM10 pollutants. In chapter three of the plan one can find the scientific data based on base year emission levels dating back to 1987 as they relate to current and future emission levels. Data clearly show’s improvement in Southern California’s quality of air in the ten year period between 1987 and 1997. The data also provides needed understanding of the major contributors to smog and other ozone depleting pollutants. Overall, total mobile source emissions account for 61 percent of the VOC and 88 percent of the Nox emissions for these two pollutants† The knowledge of this information has been a major factor in the control of these pollutants produced by the vehicles driven by millions everyday weather on the job or just tooling around town with the top down. While the information in this plan requires a good deal of scientific knowledge to understand the general message is clear. Populations are increasing which increases the demands placed on the environment. Without continual improvement regarding air quality there will be massive amounts of ozone depleting emissions created and unchecked in the environment. This plan should be imposed by the Federal government. It provides the method for promising futures not only for the environment but the economy as well. Along with the benefits in improved air quality that will result form the implementation of the 1997 AQMP substantial gains in technology will be achieved in the areas of zero emission vehicles and the development of alternative fuels. On-road motor vehicles which include passenger cars, light duty trucks, medium duty vehicles, heavy duty vehicles, and motorcycles, currently number approximately 10 million in the South Coast Air Basin. † If this seems an alarming number of vehicles of which contribute 61 percent of the VOC and 88 percent of the Nox emissions in the air; you better sit down. â€Å"In 1995 these vehicles traveled more than 300 million miles per day, and by the year 2010, vehicle miles traveled is projected to be about 380 million miles per day† . This is an alarming number of vehicles along with an alarming number of miles to boot. The implementation of the 1997 plan will require the sale of zero-emission vehicles beginning in 2003. This demand places immense pressure on the automotive industry to come up with suitable alternatives for the combustion engine. The technology gains from this industrial effort have already begun to show themselves at car shows throughout the country. All manufactures will benefit from this new technology, from those who produce the batteries that run them to manufacturers of the lightweight materials needed to produce such automobiles. The public reaps immediate gains from this technology such as the cell phone’s carried by thousands of people every day in Southern California. Some of the most notable technologies include nickel metal-hydride, lithium-ion, and sodium-nickel chloride. Nickel metal-hydride batteries are responsible for the ability to constantly charge ones cell phone battery without it developing a memory position resulting in limited to no use of the battery at all. Lithium-ion batteries provide extended use of many battery operated items used in every day life such as flash lights, cameras, radios†¦ Honda and Toyota have announced they will introduce pilot fleets of electric vehicles with nickel metal-hydride batteries in 1988 . The examples in technological advancements that result from stricter air quality controls are endless and cannot be fully realized without implementation of the controls described in the 1997 AQMP. As if the available information thus far were not enough to support the EPA’s plans for air quality, the medical community has stepped forward to support efforts for cleaner air as well. The proposed plan clearly benefits air quality and the economy through advances in technology. Support from the medical community will convince the stragglers that don’t feel air quality and technology will directly benefit themselves. â€Å"Dr. Barry S. Levy, American Public Health Association president and an environmental health physician, called today for the adoption of EPA’s proposed regulations to lower levels of particulate (soot) matter and ozone (a chemical that helps cause smog) in the air. This effort will protect children and adults from illness, disability and death, and reduce health care costs by billions of dollars† . Public health is of major concern when it comes to the environment. The air people breath daily is vital to their existence and the quality of that air is one of the major factors to their quality of life. According to DR. Levy, â€Å"The proposed EPA standard are based on well-designed scientific studies that link adverse health effect to the fine particulate matter and ozone† . The American Public Health Association (APA) is considered on of the oldest and largest organizations devoted to public health. The APA credits itself with some of the top professionals in the field of public health. They have conducted more studies and published more information regarding public health than any other organization of its kind in the world so when they support the EPA’s findings for stricter air quality control measures they speak for a vast majority of health professionals. Common sense requires one to feel a sense of dread at the possibility of death as a result of poor air quality. The EPA has built a sound case for enacting stricter air qualities and they have a great plan for its enactment. It is clearer now that the adoption of the 1997 AQMP has far reaching benefits for all. Scientifically sound evidence points to the reality of cleaner air from the plans enactment. Increases in technology will create economic growth and business opportunity. And finally health risks resulting from poor air quality can be substantially reduced for both children and adults. The 1997 AQMP also provides measures for meeting the standards proposed in its regulations. Through, â€Å"Intercredit Trading Program, Air Quality Investment Program and Promotion of Catalyst-Surface Coating Technology Programs for Air Conditioning Units. These measures are designed to enhance compliance flexibility, to facilitate the implementation of the command and control measures† . The command and control measures of the plan are simply implementation and enforcement policies which incorporate assistance and rewards for complying to regulations. Most of these programs are already successfully being operated at the present time. There is also an Air Quality Assistance Fund which has been enacted to help small businesses comply with stricter emission regulations. The plan provides a â€Å"loan guarantee for up to 90 percent of the loan amount, ranging from a minimum of $15,000 to a maximum of $250,000† . Money can be used for retrofitting operations to the point of complying with any portion of the AQMP. A study conducted buy Dr. Steven Meyer, director of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Project on Environmental Politics and Policy says, â€Å"‘Job growth–not job loss– is associated with stronger environmental policies. The 10 states with the strongest environmental policies appear to have experienced annual employment growth rates almost . 6 percent higher than those of the 10 states with the weakest environmental policies'†. Opponents of Federal regulations often rely on job scare tactics to kill a useful initiative such as the one proposed by the EPA but the facts are, jobs are created when improvements in technology are made. The plan provides a complete package from reasons for change through benefits of such changes right down to the actual implementation of its policy’s. It provides areas of assistance for those who have trouble with compliance and places adequate emphasis on continued improvement in all areas regarding air quality. With regard to the health of the planet and the there is little reason remaining for the Federal government not to enforce stricter air quality measures. How to cite Strengthening Federal Clean Air Standards, Essay examples

Literary career Essay Example For Students

Literary career Essay Charles Dickens was born near Portsmouth: his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office. His father didnt make much money here and the family wasnt coping well. The happiest period of Dickenss troubled childhood was spent in Chatham, although the family moved around a great deal. By early 1824, the family was in financial trouble and the 12-year old Dickens was sent to work for a few months at a shoe-polish warehouse on the banks of the Thames. A few days later, his father was arrested for debt. When his father was released, the family finally had some luck as they were left an inheritance courtesy of a late relative. In 1827, Dickens worked as a junior clerk for a firm of solicitors in Holborn, but he hated the law, and was drawn instead to journalism. He learnt shorthand and began reporting at the Doctors Commons Courts, and in 1831-1832 he was making shorthand reports of Parliamentary debates for the London papers. At this time, Dickens was toying with the idea of an acting career, and he remained fascinated by the theatre throughout his life, often directing and acting in shows to raise money for charitable causes and friends in distress. However, when the Monthly Magazine accepted his story, A Dinner at Poplar Walk (1833), Dickens was diverted into his subsequent literary career. He published a series of sketches of daily life in London in the Evening Chronicle, using the pseudonym Boz, his younger brothers childhood nickname. Through this work, he met his wife, Catherine Hogarth, the daughter of the Evening Chronicles co-editor; they married in 1836. Throughout his life Dickens disliked the law. Since he had experienced both sides of life being rich and poor through different periods of his childhood Dickens was completely against the poor law. Dickens uses the story of Oliver Twist to attack the cruelties of the 1834 reforms to the Poor Law, and to counter the glamorous and falsely attractive depiction of Londons criminal underworld. The novel follows the progress of Oliver, an orphan born in a workhouse, and maltreated by its hypocritical master, Bumble.  When Oliver is born after a while he begins to sneeze as if to announce that he is well and healthy but here Dickens uses humour to notify us of the feelings of the rest of the parish.  Oliver breathed, sneezed and proceeded to advertise to the inmates the fact of a new burden being imposed upon the parish. The fact that Olivers mother was being looked after by a peculiar old nurse who was sitting and drinking instead of helping the young woman.  The nurse interposed hastily depositing in her pocket a green glass bottle, the contents of which she had tasted in the corner with evident satisfaction.  Dickens makes us feel sympathetic towards Oliver in the next paragraph as he writes about the death of his mother.  She imprinted her cold white lips on its forehead; passed her hands over her face; gazed wildly around; shuddered fell back and died. Dickens then shows his anger by predicting Olivers future; it shows that he feels that this is how all poor children are treated not only in the workhouse but throughout the world. He was badged and ticketed and fell into place at once, a parish child, the orphan of the workhouse, the humble, half starved drudge to be cuffed and buffeted through the world despised by all and pitied by none.  Nine years had passed and we read that Oliver Twist is unhealthy and weak.  Twists ninth birthday found him a pale thin child, somewhat diminutive in stature and decidedly small in circumference.  This shows that Oliver has been treated appallingly from the moment he was born up to his ninth birthday. Dickens then uses irony and humour to put forward his point of view as he describes how Oliver is treated on his birthday. .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a , .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a .postImageUrl , .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a , .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a:hover , .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a:visited , .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a:active { border:0!important; } .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a:active , .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u125dd0aa704fe161984e3f3cfee2c01a:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Admiration towards forbidden love EssayIt was his ninth birthday and he was spending it with a party of young gentleman who, after participating in a sound thrashing had been locked up for atrociously presuming to be hungry.  Dickens puts his point across in an effective, thought provoking but funny way. It shows that even on his birthday Oliver is beaten, not given any extra food as a treat and locked up in a coal cellar.  Oliver is then sent to the work house yet he had to meet with the board. The boy was frightened and confused. Oliver begins to cry steadily when he reminded that he is an orphan.  You know youve got no mother and father and that you were brought u p by the parish dont you? Dickens shows here that the board didnt care about Oliver and his feelings.  My point is backed up in the next few lines as the gentlemen are confused as to why Oliver is crying.  What are you crying for?  What could the boy be crying for?  Dickens pretty much sums up what he is trying to say about the workhouses in this section. Then the gentleman asks him if hes a good Christian and if he prays at night.  I hope you say your prayers at night; said another gentleman in a gruff voice; and pray for the people who feed you and take care of you- like a good Christian. Dickens uses irony and humour after this is said.  It would have been very much like a Christian, and a marvellously good Christian too, if Oliver had prayed for the people who clothed and fed him. But he hadnt because no one had taught him.  Three months after Oliver is sent to the workhouse it comes to our attention that Oliver and the rest are slowly being starved to the point where they are threatening to eat each other.  Oliver Twist and his companions suffered the tortures of slow starvation for three months: at last they got so voracious and wild with hunger, that one boy hinted darkly to his companions that unless he had another basin of gruel, he was afraid he might some night have to eat the boy who slept next to him. For this reason the boys picked straws to see who would be the one to ask for more food the next evening. Oliver was set this task.  Please sir I want some more.  For this reason Oliver was taken to the board and anybody who would take him away from the parish would receive five pounds in reward.  In chapter four we are introduced to Mr Sowerberry the parish under taker who is having a general conversation with the beadle about business.  The prices allowed by the board are very small.So are the coffins.   Theres no denying that, since the new system of feeding has come in, the coffins are somewhat narrower and shallower than they used to be: but we must have some profit. Here Dickens describes a general conversation between the beadle and the undertaker he uses this conversation effectively as he shows that the children of the parish dying thinner than ever means good news for the business as they make a lot of profit.  Mr Bumble changes the subject to Oliver Twist and Oliver is inevitably apprenticed to the undertaker.  Oliver arrives at the undertakers house with Mr Bumble, Mrs Sowerberry comes to the door and sees Oliver but she is not impressed.  Dear me! Said the undertakers wife, hes very small.  After Oliver finishes his supper he is taken away by Mrs Sowerberry to be shown where he will sleep.  Your beds under the counter. You dont mind sleeping amongst the coffins, I suppose? But it doesnt matter whether you do or you dont, for you cant sleep anywhere else.

Systems and Network Security

Introduction Providing security to the users of a system is among the key concerns of an operating system manufacturer. On the windows platform it has been observed that the uses of different file systems is one approach that has been used to provide additional security.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Systems and Network Security specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the Windows Server 2003 platform the use of the NTFS files system has been maintained owing to the security features that the system supports (Weber Bahadur 2003). With the NTFS files system files and directories are maintained as securable objects thus allowing users to set permissions that limit access to these objects. Some of the main functions handled by an operating systems include those associated with Authentication, Authorization and Accounting. (See Figure III) On the Windows platform AAA provides a means for the system to identify a user, grant access to specific resources and document what actions the user took and at what time they took these actions (Reeser, Kaplan Wood 2003). The majority of services associated with AAA on the Windows Server 2003 environment are offered by the Windows security model. Under this security model authentication is carried out through the use of user account / password settings. Authorization is handled by discretionary access control lists managed by the system. The system caters for accounting needs using event logs and event auditing policies (Reeser, Kaplan Wood 2003).To assist in the management of permissions when a user logs on to the system an access token is produced. This token consists of pieces of information about the users account (Weber Bahadur 2003). Through this means when a user attempts to access a file the system checks to see if the user has the security descriptor for that file. In addition to monitoring the users of a system the Windows Server 2003 platform al lows the administrator of the system to audit activity on the system by observing the system logs. Each access attempt is logged and stored in a log file that can be viewed by the system administrators or other users with appropriate permissions (Weber Bahadur 2003).Advertising Looking for essay on computer science? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, no system provides perfect security and for that reason there are ways to go around the operating system in Windows Server 2003. The purpose of this report is to briefly discuss some of the issues with authentication, authorization and auditing (AAA) on the Windows Server 2003 platform. Windows Server 2003 Authentication Mechanism The Windows Server 2003 platform just like the Windows 2000 was constructed to give a wide range of control over access to its resources. As a matter of fact Windows Server 2003 is designed such that it checks access permissions for every request before granting access to system resources (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). The Windows Server 2003professional system can provide local security when used as a standalone system, in a workgroup or participate in domain security managed by a Windows server (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). Before a user is granted access to any system resources on the platform they are required to logon providing a valid user ID and password (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). After successfully logon the user is granted an access token by the system. This access token includes information about the user’s identity, any permission associated with the user account and a complete list of the groups to which the user belongs. A string of bits represents the token that is attached to every process that the user initializes until the user logs off the system (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). This signifies that each time the user runs a program, enters a system command or accesses some system resource a copy of that token accompanies that request. On each occasion that a user attempts to access a resource the system automatically compares the token with a list of permissions associated with the resource. This list of permissions is referred to as the access control list (ACL) (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). This list is one of the more important attributes associated with the Windows Server 2003 resources. It guarantees that whenever a request is made the ACL and token are carefully compared and access is only granted when a match is found. The recognized permission settings in the Windows Server 2003 platform are Allow and Deny. Allow enables the user or group access to a service whereas Deny disables the same (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). (See Figure I)Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Systems and Network Security specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Windows domain security is built o n Active directory. This is a centralized database of configuration and communication information maintained by domain controllers on a Windows network (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). The Active Directory is used to support everything from authentication of users to accessing shared resources on the network. However when used as a standalone system or part of a domain Windows Server 2003 does not use Active Directory but uses the registry and internal security systems to control access to resources. The Windows Server 2003 logon is compulsory to allow access to resources on the system. There are two types of logons available on Windows Server 2003 namely the classic and Windows welcome (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). When a Windows Server 2003 system is a member of a domain the classic system can be used. However, when the system is a standalone or member of a workgroup either classic or welcome logon can be used (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). The logon on process is typically made up of two components namely identification and authentication. The identification part requires that the user provide a valid account name and in cases where a domain is involved a valid account name. Authentication requires that a user provide a valid means of verifying their identity to the system (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). Possession of the proper password for an account is considered to be appropriate authentication. The Windows Server 2003 system also supports the use of third party authentication procedures such as the use of biometric procedures (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). These procedures include the use of systems that check fingerprints, retinal scans and the use of smart cards to verify identity of the user. Upon a successful login to the system the user is provide a token which includes the user Security identity (SID) and SID’s for each of the groups the user belongs. The access token thus includes the unique SID associated with the account, a list of groups to which the user belongs and a list of rights and privileges associated with that user account (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006) (See Figure II).Advertising Looking for essay on computer science? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Access to system resources is granted only after the user receives an access token. Each access token is created for one time use and is discarded after the user logs off the system (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). Once constructed the access token is attached by the system to the users shell process. This shell process defines the environment in which the user executes programs or spawns other processes. In the Windows Server 2003 system resources are controlled by the system at an object level. Each object in the system has a unique access control list that defines users and groups that have permission to access the specific resource (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). In this regard therefore everything in the Windows Server 2003 environment is an object. This includes all files, folders, printers, processes, users, requests, etc. An individual object is identified by its type, which will define the permitted range of contents and operations which may be performed on the obj ect (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). All objects in the Windows Server 2003 system are logically divided into three sections namely, a type identifier, a list functions or services and a list of attributes that may or may not have associated items (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). The object identifier is used to describe the type of entity associated with the object. A service is used to define the procedure to follow when manipulating an object. Whereas, the attributes are its named characteristics such as the file name or whether the file is hidden or read only (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). Windows Server 2003 Authorization Mechanisms The Windows Server 2003 operating system is built with a number of features to help protect selected files and applications from unauthorized use (Russel Crawford 2009). The system offers its users a variety of features from protection and third party software that can allow the user manage or configure the system. These features assi st administrators by provision of powerful and flexible structures for controlling the access to resources and the network. Every user within an organization serves a specific role and purpose. For the users to successfully perform their tasks within an organization the system needs to allow access to required resources (Russel Crawford 2009). The employees who work in the accounting departments are not allowed to make changes but only make use of different files and documents. It is right, as all the control should be done by the directors of the company. There is a special department that is in the control of those specific documents used by the employees. The personnel department controls the access that may be given to corresponding specific people that are allowed to look through and to make use of the document. The Windows Server 2003 system performs it authorization function by adhering to several key underlying principles. As mentioned earlier the Windows Server 2003 system considers all entities as objects. A security principal is one of these objects that the system identifies with. â€Å"Any entity that can be authenticated by the Windows Server 2003 system is considered a security principal† (Russel Crawford 2009). Each security principal has an account and all local accounts are managed by the local Security Accounts Manager (SAM). If an account is in another Windows domain it is managed by Active Directory (Russel Crawford 2009). Another important concept that is used in authorization mechanisms is that of the security identifier (SID). This is a unique value monitored and stored on the system for identification of user, groups, etc., within an organization (Russel Crawford 2009). Upon creation of an account a unique SID is issued by the system. Windows Server 2003 uses the SID to manage access control rather than the name of the object within the system. Another concept that is used in management of authorization is that of the securi ty context. This refers to information that pertains to a particular user on the system and their capabilities (Russel Crawford 2009). This requires that the system assess all users in a single department or location to maintain similar security permissions across the entire group. To perform this task the Windows Server 2003 system makes use of a security descriptor. This is â€Å"a data structure containing information associated with the object to be secured† (Russel Crawford 2009). The security descriptor is used to identify an objects owner using the SID. In case something has been already done for the issue, â€Å"the security descriptor contains discretionary access control list (DACL)† (Russel Crawford 2009). This DACL will contain a list of users and groups that are allowed or denied access to the object in question (Russel Crawford 2009). In case a specific objects as already been created for use, the corresponding documents of the control should be creat ed by the company representatives such as security descriptors. This SACL controls how the sub system will audit access attempts to the object (Russel Crawford 2009). As mentioned earlier authorization makes use of an Access Control List (ACL), that should be ordered in advance and contains the needed information about people who are allowed to make use of the documents and its abilities in this or that process (Russel Crawford 2009). â€Å"Each access control entry in the list identifies a security principal and specifies a set of rights denied, audited or allowed for that security principal† (Russel Crawford 2009). In addition to the above mentioned approaches the system also offers security settings which are applicable to individual computers. These settings can be locally configured through the use of the Local Security Policy Administration tool (Russel Crawford 2009). In addition to that the security policy can be configured using the Microsoft Management Console. â€Å"If the computer is a member of an active directory domain the analysis snap-in tool can be used through the Security Settings Extension to Group Policy† (Russel Crawford 2009). Other concepts that are used by Windows Server 2003 systems in managing authorization include discretionary access to securable objects. This concept suggests that the owner of an object has overall control over who uses the object and in what way (Russel Crawford 2009). Different people may be given various types of access by the owner of the companies. of users. This suggests the owner of an object is allowed to allocate Read and Write permissions to specific categories while denying Write permissions to other categories of users. Detailed description of authentication, authorization and auditing on windows Another concept that is used to control authorization in the Windows Server 2003 system is that of inheritance of permissions. This can be realized by â€Å"allowing objects create a cont ainer inherit properties of the container† (Russel Crawford 2009). For example, the NTFS file system allows sub folders and files to inherit properties of their parent containers. Another principle used in the management of authorization is that of rights and permissions. â€Å"Access control basically involves the configuration of rights and permissions to objects on the local computer or network and the potential users of those objects† (Russel Crawford 2009). In this respect a right is an authorization to perform an action. Rights are granted by the administrator and can also be withdrawn. The system administrator views right from two perspectives namely, logon rights and privileges. Permission is the authorization to perform an action on an object (Russel Crawford 2009). The system reserves the right to grant permissions to the owners of an object. An example of permission is the liberty to perform an operation such as opening a file. It should not be forgotten t hat the permission may be denied sooner or later in case of rules violation. For example, a user permits members of a group Read and Write access to a file. This suggests that if you are not a member of the group then permission has been denied. In addition to this the Windows 2003 system allows for the provision to deny permission explicitly (Russel Crawford 2009). Russel Crawford say that â€Å"the same object owner is allowed to deny a specific member of the group Read and Write access to the file† (2009). To achieve the goal of authorization the Windows Server 2003 system maintains that all operations must be performed within the context of a user. Upon accessing the system crucial information about the user is recorded in a unique access token created by the system (Russel Crawford 2009). Each application that is launched on the system operates as a process that may contain several threads being executed. Before any thread is run it must identify itself to the operati ng system by providing the access token information. Once it has been identified access is granted within stated parameters. Windows Server 2003 Auditing Mechanisms As with most operating systems the Windows Server 2003 systems provides administrators with an easy way to track activities on the system (Gibson 2011).The system allows one to track user access files, shutdown systems, create or modify accounts and much more. Although the system monitors several events by default it is crucial that one knows what is required within the organization (See Figure IV). It is important to know how to enable auditing of different events to meet organizational needs (Gibson 2011). The Microsoft Windows Server 2003 system records all auditable events in the event log and these can be viewed by using the event viewer. In addition to this there is the Microsoft Baseline Security Analyzer (MBSA) which provides a different type of auditing. This feature allows a user or administrator to audit compu ters on a network for a wide range of vulnerabilities (Gibson 2011). This is a free tool that can be downloaded and installed on a single machine on the network (See Figure V). The MBSA can then be used to perform vulnerability scans on any other Windows systems running on the network and perform audits on them for compliance. To achieve this software compares their security status against known security vulnerabilities. Auditing within a Windows environment is relatively easy to implement based on the fact that it is possible to enable an audit policy for an entire domain using group policy or for a server using Local Security Policy (Gibson 2011). The Windows Server 2003 system allows the administrator to enable auditing to manage both success and failure events. For example if you enable Full auditing access for a folder the system would create an entry in the security log that includes user and file specific details (Gibson 2011). If someone attempted to delete the file but lack ed the necessary permissions to do so a failure event would be created in the security log. This log would also contain the necessary file and user information associated with the event. Failed events are monitored as they provide a good point to begin identification of potentially malicious activity (Gibson 2011). The Windows Server 2003 system makes is relatively easy to enable security settings for auditing. However, the main difficult lies in identification what requires auditing before enabling it using the settings within the system (Gibson 2011). It should be noted that if one enabled everything the log would be filled with many unnecessary details. These details and processes will consume crucial system resources and make the process of identifying important events even more difficult. The audit policy includes two account settings that both deal with logging on to the system. The first one is Account Logon which creates an event any time a user or computer is authenticated with an Active Directory account (Gibson 2011). The other option is the Logon setting which creates an event each time a user logs on locally (Gibson 2011). Redirect flow of running process These attacks also referred to as redirection attacks can be described as tier one attacks due to the fact that there is a direct link between the attacker and the victim (Zou, Dai Pan 2008). This attack exposes the attacker to discovery which in many cases they desperately attempt to avoid. One method to avoid this problem is to add a layer between the attacker and the user. This can be accomplished by taking advantage of TCP/IP characteristics. In this approach the attacker will craft packets that can be used to turn intermediate systems into attack launching platforms (Zou, Dai Pan 2008). This process makes the tracing of an attacker difficult. These attacks can be achieved by ICMP redirects. The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is used by the system to provide diagnostic messages co ncerning packet delivery. Among the common messages of this type are the echo request/reply messages which focus on the ability of one system to communicate with another (Zou, Dai Pan 2008). Another type is the ICMP redirect which when accepted modifies a systems routing table allowing messages to be sent via a shorter route. These attacks work by altering the path that a victim host should use to reach its default gateway to an invalid path (Zou, Dai Pan 2008). Thus the victim is unable to communicate with all systems except those present on the local subnet. Another attack that falls under this category is the Smurf attacks. It is reported that every TCP/IP subnet has a special address known as a broadcast address. Packets sent to this address are processed by all the systems on that subnet (Zou, Dai Pan 2008). One of the common uses for this address is the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). This is a concept used to map IP addresses to MAC ones within the subnet. When launchin g a smurf attack, the attacker selects a random network and Echo-Request ICMP (ping) packet to that subnet’s broadcast address (Zou, Dai Pan 2008). Normally each system on the network will send a response to this message but the attacker also spoofs the source address to be that of the victim. In so doing, each system sends its ICMP Echo-reply packet to the attacker (Zou, Dai Pan 2008). There are two advantages of such an attack. First is the fact that the actual packets the attacker send are not received by the victim, making it more difficult to track the origin. Second is that the network also serves as an attack amplifier due to the fact that a single ICMP echo request may result in hundreds of reply packets directed at the victim (Zou, Dai Pan 2008). Another type of attack is known as the Chargen attack. The chargen is a special service bound to port 19 that typically is used to test network capacity (Zou, Dai Pan 2008). When a connection is made to this port it resp onds with a string of characters. When launching this kind of attack, the attacker must first locate the systems active chargen service. Once located the attacker sends a UDP echo request to port 19 after spoofing the source IP address as that of the victim. This results in the intermediate host sending a string of characters to the Echo service port of the victim (Zou, Dai Pan 2008). As protocol dictates the victim will respond by sending that string in response to the received message. The end result is an endless loop where the process is repeated until the victims system fails. In many cases one system is not enough to guarantee failure thus a number of intermediate systems may be used as described in the Smurf attack. Conclusion In the course of the report the various mechanisms used to provide AAA services on the platform have been briefly discussed. It has been observed that authentication is carried out through the use of user account / password settings. Authorization is h andled by discretionary access control lists managed by the system. The system caters for accounting needs using event logs and event auditing policies (Reeser, Kaplan Wood 2003). It has also been noted that due to the system used for authentication the system can easily be exposed to attacks by unwanted outsiders. This is because based on the mechanism for authentication, once a user is authenticated the system hands over control of specific resources to them (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006). Unfortunately in a networked environment this is risky as it allows for man in the middle attacks that could cripple the entire system. However, this should not be taken to mean the system is not worth further consideration as there is no system that guarantees perfect security. The above point just goes a step further to identify potential weak points in the system. The system has also been applauded for the convenience it offers to users through the use of workgroups (Stanek Bhardwaj 20 07). As the number of connected computers increases so too does the number of workgroups. Workgroups are small groupings of computers running the operating system. The operating system allows the users to form small groups and share resources without the need for intermediary servers and administrators. References Gibson, D. (2011). Microsoft Windows Security Essentials. Indiana: Wiley Publishing Inc. Reeser, T., Kaplan, S., Wood, A. (2003). Citrix MetaFrame Access suite for Windows Server 2003: the official guide. California: McGraw-Hill/Osborne. Russel, C., Crawford, S. (2009). Microsoft Windows XP Professional Resource Kit. USA: Microsoft Press Books. Stanek, W. R., Bhardwaj, P. K. (2007). MCSA on Windows Server 2003 Core exams in a Nutshell. California) O’Reilly Media Inc. Stewart, J. M., McCann, B., Melendez, A. (2006). MCSE Guide to Microsoft Windows XP Professional. Boston: Course Technology. Weber, C., Bahadur, G. (2003). Windows XP Professional Security. USA: M cGraw-Hill Inc. Zou, X., Dai, Y. S., Pan, Y. (2008). Trust and security in collaborative computing. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. Appendix Figure I: User Account Applet (Stewart, McCann and Melendez 2006) Figure II: Default Permissions (Russel Crawford 2009) Figure III: The AAA Process (Gibson 2011) Figure IV: Sample Audit Policy (Gibson 2011) Figure V: MBSA Software (Gibson 2011) This essay on Systems and Network Security was written and submitted by user Bennett Odom to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Welcome to Hell!

Welcome to Hell! Welcome to Hell. Please let us enslave you. We'll give you a free t-shirt if you fill out this credit card application... You can drive home in this brand new car, with no payments until 2000... It's so much easier to not worry about these details. We'll take care of them for you. All we ask is that you send in your payment every month like a good slave.No, no, don't read books. Libraries are closing more and more everyday anyway because they're obsolete, now superseded by television. That concept we taught you in grade school called "literacy" was just a lie, just like everything else we crammed down your throat. We just want to make life easy for you! We'll even give you pretty pictures and animation to protect you from that mean computer! Just you don't worry about that. We'll manage all the details for you for the low, low price of $99.95.1914 Santa Claus in japanThe less you know, the better off we are. Job security. Think we're stupid? We are, but we can bullshit our way onto y our desktop, because you're even stupider than we are. The truth is, you never knew you had a choice. You probably wouldn't even know there was such a thing as software, without which the computer can't operate, if it hadn't been for our constant reminders that you can upgrade the crap we sold you for the low, low price of $79.95. But it's worth it because you get a 30% increase in performance. That will actually impress you because we're competing with ourselves here.It's actually not that hard. After a late night and a hang over, we quickly code this crap and hire graphics professionals to candy coat it. Then we break anti-trust laws and cut every corner possible to...

Organization and Governance of Higher Education Essay

Organization and Governance of Higher Education - Essay Example This paper outlines that the governance and the organization of the internal structure of the university require in-depth analysis of power and its exercise in organization. It requires incorporation of the leadership studies, political theories, and analysis of how formal or informal the interaction between the organizations are in terms of management of conflict, and analysis of tension between bureaucratic and professional authority. These perspectives confirm that structures, while necessary are not sufficient to manage the kind of conflict that emerges as tension between bureaucratic and professional authority. It requires special skill set and combination to manage the conflict that emerges in colleges and universities. Understanding less formal and more contingent ways to deal with these conflicts seem to be the most promising avenues for governing higher education. Governing requires understanding of works and forces that shape the behavior of those who govern to give the sou ndest analytical platform from which to begin. The system which provides information about how power and authority are exercised is what governing is about, and requires and analysis of the structures, procedures and outcomes. Governing implies how people work within the structures of the formal authority to reach a decision. Governing which is the exercising power and authority is more important than the governance. From this discussion it is clear that the recent trends indicate that the capitalism, academic style is reshaping its focus and forms of academic production and governance. This emerging trend of entrepreneurial orientation affects the function which has become a priority in the governance. This has also been impacted by the change in the structure of the professional employment in the academy from full time dominant faculty to part time faculty and full time support professional.